A Comparative Analysis of Nine Learning Approaches in Islamic Religious Education: A Literature Review of Characteristics, Foundations, and Strength of Evidence

Abstract

Islamic Religious Education (PAI) aims to develop knowledge, attitudes, and worship skills, so teachers must choose learning approaches carefully. However, claims about the superiority of a given approach are difficult to compare because terminology is inconsistent and the available empirical evidence is uneven. This article compares nine PAI learning approaches (teacher-centered, student-centered, contextual, constructivist, scientific, humanistic, problem-based, cooperative, and differentiated) in terms of their characteristics, foundations, and strength of evidence. The study is a qualitative-comparative literature review of 30 sources (27 journal articles, one conference paper, and two books), 29 of which were published in 2021–2026. A comparative content analysis was conducted across 14 aspects, accompanied by a descriptive appraisal of evidence designs. The findings show that (1) approaches, strategies, models, and learning theories are labelled inconsistently, so many comparisons are made across different levels; (2) quasi-experimental evidence is limited and available mainly for contextual and cooperative learning, evidence on problem-based learning in PAI is correlational, and the remaining approaches rely on case studies, literature reviews, and conceptual work; (3) approaches differ along different dimensions rather than on a single good–bad scale; and (4) good practice appears adaptive and combines approaches. The superiority of one approach over another cannot yet be asserted. The article offers a selection framework based on goals, content characteristics, and classroom conditions as a working hypothesis for cross-approach empirical research.